Botany – a curious nature

Great Mullein – Page 16 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

August 19, 2026

If you’ve ever passed by a barren field, a somewhat rocky yet gentle slope, or a roadside waste area and noticed one or maybe many more very tall stems rising from a rosette of large fuzzy leaves, you were likely looking at Great Mullein (Verbascum thapsus), a non-native biennial plant of the Figwort family. Standing out as sentinels on landscapes across the U.S., this now-naturalized¹ species was intentionally brought to North America by early European colonists in the 1700s primarily for its medicinal properties and as a fish poison.

Two years ago while wandering down the “Trash Can” trail, just below the little rocky earthen dam stood an 8-foot tall Great Mullein. This wasn’t just any ordinary mullein though. The top 2 feet of the flower stalk was crowned with one of the most uniquely contorted, bent and folded mullein crests I’d ever seen. Magnificent!

The “Trash Can” trail Great Mullein plant (long dried) with a very large, deformed flower stalk (a fasciation) that had bent from excessive weight.

The top-heavy mass, supporting scattered flowers and many hundreds of growing seed capsules had begun to dip and sway dangerously in the light Fall breeze. While watching and wondering what cause(s) of this rare and exaggerated growth, known as a “fasciation,” the heavy stalk moaned (really!). All I knew on that morning along that trail was that the stalk’s lean would soon take the entire plant to the ground.

Very happy to find this magnificent specimen!

Rushing to the rescue, I grabbed onto the lower third of the stalk, hoping to somehow rotate the top 180°. It was at that moment, when nothing moved, I realized just how heavy that flower stalk was. Then, as my eye blinked only once, the upper 2/3rds of the plant broke and came crashing down …… fasciation and all!

Trying my best to save the flower stalk from snapping off.

Lying on the ground in a heap (mullein pieces, not me), Plan B began to materialize. Here was my chance to learn if Great Mullein “fasciates” genetically. So I collected the still-intact contorted and folded crown with its many ripened seed capsules, and proudly carried it home where it spent the upcoming winter hanging out in a 5-gallon bucket while the seeds dried, became dormant, and experienced a natural dormancy-breaking winter, preparing them for Spring planting. So certain was I that my mother plant had passed her “fasciation genes” on to her seeds, that the flowering plants of her progeny would fasciate too.

All my efforts were in vain ….. eventually the fasciated top of the flower stalk broke and crashed to the ground.

(Here’s an excerpt from my garden journal)

Spring 2025 ….. many minute seeds were scattered about our back yard.

Summer 2025 ….. 8 seeds germinated into petite 1st year rosettes

Winter 2025-2026 ….. 7 rosettes were robust enough to survive the winter

Late Spring 2026 ….. all 7 rosettes bolted, and flower stalks began growing; no sign of fasciation

Mid-Summer 2026 ….. woke one morning to find 3 had died — cause unknown (did they get too much hand watering?); only 4 flowering plants still alive; no sign of fasciation; Ladder-backed woodpeckers feasting on something inside countless seed capsules (some kind of insect?). (You can read about my mulleins’ visits from Ladder-backed Woodpeckers in my June 8, 2026 post here)

Of all the plants in our yard growing tall, with multiple flower stalks, this is the only one remaining alive at the time of this post.

Late-Summer 2026 ….. only 1 flowering plant still alive, still flowering, still plumping up seed capsules that are still feeding hungry woodpeckers (there’s so many capsules, they aren’t opening them all, so there may be seed left over for the next generation?)

Fall 2026 ……………….

Thinking back on the last two years, it seems I have a slight case of Mullein Madness, judging from my apparent obsession with the fasciation (fascinating) characteristics of Great Mullein,Verbascum thapsus! If that’s as weird as contorted flower stalks, so be it. I’ll confess to this tho….. many happy hours were not only spent watching my mullein grow, but in combing the literature and published research in search of answers to my questions while learning so much about such a remarkable plant.

Apologies in advance, but after reading the rest of this post (which is quite verbose), you too might just catch a case of Mullein Madness!

Great Mullein (Verbascum thapsus)

—aka—

greater mullein, common mullein, mullein dock, cowboy toilet paper, hig candlewick, Indian rag weed, bullock’s lungwort, Aaron’s-rod, hare’s-beard, ice-leaf feltwort, velvet dock, and flannel; woolly, velvet and blanket mullein; beggar’s, Moses’, poor man’s, Our Lady’s and old man’s blanket

Home, Sweet Home

Native to Europe, North Africa and Asia, Great Mullein is an introduced (a non-native) species in the Americas, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Japan.

In the U.S., Great Mullein was imported very early in the 18th century and cultivated for its medicinal and Piscicide² properties. By 1818, it had begun spreading so much that everyone thought it was native. By 1839, the species had spread as far west as Michigan; by 1876, it was growing in California. Today, Great Mullein is common in all 50 states. In Canada, it’s common in the Maritime Provinces, southern Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia, with scattered populations in between.

Happiness Was Watching My Mullein Grow

Life cycle: Great Mullein, a biennial (requiring two growing seasons to complete its entire life cycle), needs a winter dormancy period to flower. During its first year, a seed germinating in the spring or early summer develops a showy rosette of large leaves that grows from a taproot. After overwintering, the second year’s growth begins when a solid 1-inch diameter woody stem emerges from the rosette. This single pole-like stem, that can extend 6 feet tall or more, is covered in alternately-arranged leaves along the lower third of its length, becoming completely surrounded with a dense grouping of small flower buds that randomly bloom throughout the summer. Typically, only one stem forms, but if damaged during growth, branching may occur. After flowering and seed release the flower stalk(s) dries up and remains covered in dried brown seed capsules. Dried stalks and any seeds not scattered during fall may persist into the following spring or summer.

Habitat: Great Mullein grows in a wide variety of habitats, but thrives on well-lit disturbed soils, open meadows, and arid or overgrazed rangelands. Viable seeds, that can persist in the soil for hundreds of years, rapidly germinate in the spring soon after the ground warms up. While the mullein can also grow alongside existing plants, growth of the rosettes on bare soil is four to seven times more rapid than under vegetated conditions.

Flowers: Beneath the flower’s corolla (petals) is the deeply lobed, green calyx consisting of 5 hairy, triangular-shaped sepals. The bright golden-yellow saucer-shaped corolla (0.6–1.2 in) is formed from 5 slightly unequal petal lobes that are fused at the base. Attached on top of the petals are 5 stamens of two types: three shorter upper stamens covered in yellow/whitish hairs, and two longer lower stamens that are smooth. The pistil at the center of the flower consists of a superior ovary, a single slender green style, and a two-lobed stigma. Flowering lasts up to three months from early to late summer. Flowers begin blooming from the bottom of the tall stalk (spike) and progress irregularly upward. Each flower opens for part of a day and only a few open at the same time around the stalk. They typically open before dawn and close in the afternoon.

Great Mullein flowers. The lower flowers had closed the day before.

Pollination and Pollinators: Flowers are able to self-pollinate if they haven’t been pollinated by insects during the day. Even though many insects visit the flowers, only certain bees actually get the job done (such as halictid bees (usually dark black or brown, often metallic appearing sweat bees). Birds foraging for insects, such as the white-headed and ladder-backed woodpeckers, are known to feed from the seed capsules covering the flower stalk.

Seeds: Each tiny (<0.04 in) brown Great Mullein seed is marked with longitudinal ridges. Each flower produces a small, ovoid (0.24 in) capsule full of seeds that splits open with two valves when mature. Each plant produces hundreds of capsules that contain up to 700 seeds apiece, totaling anywhere between 180,000 or 240,000 seeds/plant. Seeds germinate in spring and summer on bare soil (or very close to the soil surface) when exposed to light, at temperatures between 10 and 40°C (50 and 104°F).

The seeds are generally too small for birds to feed on, although the American goldfinch has been reported to eat them.

(See the following section for more on seeds.)

Did You Know ………

They Call it Fasciation! If you’re familiar with Great Mullein, you may have noticed some flower stalks don’t always grow straight and tall. For some reason, some tops form weird shapes that may be flat or compressed, folded or ribbon-like, bulbous or crested. These plants have grown what’s called a fasciated flower stalk, the result of a rare developmental mutation. Scientists studying these unusual growths are trying to learn what triggers fasciation, but it remains a mystery. They have, however, identified several potential vectors that may disrupt normal growth:

Roy holding the fasciated end of the “Trash Can” trail Great Mullein.

Pests and pathogens: Insect feeding, mite activity, or bacterial infections (like Rhodococcus fascians) can damage or trick the growth tip into abnormal widening, though some field tests found their presence on fasciated mullein as well as on normal plants.
Environmental stress: Severe weather shifts, frost, or chemical/herbicide exposure during early stalk development may shock the growing tip into expressing fasciation.
Physical injury: Mechanical damage to the growing tip is known to disrupt normal elongation, though specific studies carried out on some Great Mullein plants noted that physical damage actually reduced or did not trigger fascination.

And Now! Everything You Wanted to Know About Great Mullein Seeds

Did you know ….. some seeds that germinate in autumn may jeopardize the life of the plant? Rosettes getting a late start must grow to at least 6 inches in diameter or they are likely to die in winter. Regardless, all first year plants that do survive overwintering and go on to complete their life cycle, die at the end of their second year, with some exceptions. Under the best growing conditions, some individuals flower in the first year, only to die the same year. And some individuals, especially in the northern parts of the range, require a longer growing period and don’t flower until their third year. Curiously tho, three-year plants often produce fewer seeds than biennial and annual ones. While year of flowering and size are linked to the environment, most other characteristics appear to be genetic (fasciation is an example).

Did you know ….. decades-old seeds can readily sprout from bare ground, or after forest and range fires, long after Great Mullein plants have died. This ability to quickly grow or even colonize disturbed areas may provide some soil stability, but it does interfer with the natural succession of native species.

Did you know ….. seeds don’t disperse far from a Great Mullein flower stalk? This means plants rarely establish in new areas without human intervention. Seeds scatter naturally when winds or animals move the stem causing 75% of the seeds fall within 3 feet of the parent plant; 93% fall within 15 feet.

Did you know ….. seeds are in the fossil record? Oh My! Discoveries of Great Mullein seeds have been reported from several important geological areas on the British Isles, including:

Cromer Forest Bed geological formation (Early to the early Middle Pleistocene [2 to 0.5 million years ago]) located in coastal areas of the Norfolk region of England;
West Wittering in Sussex in fossil-bearing clay formed during the Eocene epoch around 46 million years ago; and the
Ipswichian interglacial layers falling within the Middle Paleolithic period 130,000 to 115,000 years ago.

Great Mullein Plays Host to Many Visitors

The Good, the Bad, and the Questionable Pests and Beneficial Insects, and Diseases

Represented by 29 different families!

Pests: The majority are western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis), Lygus species such as the tarnished plant bug (L. lineolaris) and various genera from the spider mite family (Tetrantchidae). Other common insects that feed exclusively on Verbascum spp. in general or V. thapsus (Great Mullein) in particular are: mullein thrips (Haplothrips verbasci), mullein moths (Cucullia verbasci), and common stalk borer moths (Papaipema nebris).

Beneficial Insects include predators, pollinators and specialized herbivores, such as:

Honey bees were busy collecting pollen and nectar from my Great Mullein flowers. The flower stalks were a-buzz every morning and into early afternoon when the flowers were open.

Mullein plant bug (Campylomma verbasci) is hosted primarily in summer and permitted to feed lightly on the plant while actively preying on orchard aphids, mites, and thrips.
Leaf bug (Dicyphus hesperus) is hosted year-round as its primary habitat and food source in return for helping to manage greenhouse and agricultural pests like whiteflies and spider mites.
Minute pirate bug (Orius tristicolor) hosted solely as a platform to hunt thrips and other small pests on the foliage.
Predatory mites (Galendromus, Typhlodromus and Amblyseius spp.) hosted year-round on plant surfaces to hunt harmful plant-feeding mites.
Wool carder bees (Anthidium species) hosted as a casual visitor for purposes of gathering the dense, soft/woolly hairs from the plant’s leaves to line their nesting chambers.
Bumblebees, honeybees, hoverflies, butterflies hosted as frequent drop-in visitors throughout the growing season to gather abundant nectar and pollen from the flowers in return for pollination services. Special accommodations are always arranged for the following members of this visitor group known to successfully pollinate the flowers — generalist short- and long-tongued bees, including certain bumblebee species (Bombus spp.), honeybees (Apis mellifera), and assorted solitary bees (small native, wild bees).

This colorful beetle is two-spotted melyrid (dollops bipunctatus), a predatory insect on mites, aphids and other harmful insects. They were common on the huge leaves on my Great Mullein plants.

Diseases reluctantly hosted by Great Mullein include cucumber mosaic virus — the cucurbit powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum), and root rot (Phymatotricum omnivorum), along with Cercospora verbasciola; Phoma thapsi; Phyllosticta verbaciola; Heterodera maroni; Meloidogyne sp.; Mycosphaerella verbasciola; Ramularia veriabilis; Septoria verbasciola; and Oidium pyrinum. These microorganisms not only impact the health of the host, but may impact other desirable plants in the area.

A Confusingly Questionable Insect —

The Voracious Mullein Seed-Eating Weevil

A mullein seed-eating weevil adult. They were found everywhere on all the mullein plants in the yard. Very small weevils made the plant looked like it had been covered in very fine pepper!

Great Mullein was clearly tricked into hosting the mullein seed-eating weevil (Rhinusa tetra syn. Gymnaetron tetrum) by this demure, sometimes brown to nearly glossy-black beetle that promised to nibble only on leaves and a few seed capsules for the entire 45 days of its adult life. Little did mullein know that this weevil was hiding a secret. When it came to the end of her days (coinciding with flower blossoming) there was only one thing left to do … deposit all 150-200 of her fertilized eggs, two-by-two, into as many flowers as possible, she does this for over an 11-day period, and then she dies. But about 1 week following egg laying, the eggs hatch into larvae (grubs) and commence consuming most of the ~700 seeds in the growing seed capsule. When they’ve about exhausted their food supply, the larvae pupate and finally emerge as adults ~25 days later. The adults remain on the host mullein, munching uninhabited seed capsules and leaves, for 45 days until the next batch of females lays their next batch of eggs, and on it goes, until ….. when the growing season winds down and winter begins to blow in, adult weevils that haven’t completed their life cycle will tuck into a dried seed capsule and hibernate. And larvae that have entered the pupa stage of their lives will remain as such, overwintering until late spring when warmer weather triggers completion of their metamorphosis and the adults can safely emerge, ready to begin feeding on 2nd year flowering mullein.

Weevil Interlude

The mullein seed-eating weevil was accidentally introduced from Europe in 1876, to control the spread of Great Mullein. But back then and for many years following, the weevil was never intentionally used for that purpose. It happened “naturally” as the weevil spread throughout North America, making its living on Verbascum spp. it found on its journey. In more modern times, and because the weevil was never formally cleared as a released biological control agent, local land management and weed programs (such as in parts of the Pacific Northwest and Wyoming) informally recognize it as an already-established bio-agent since its larvae feed extensively on the seeds of Great Mullein. In some regions where the plant is a designated noxious weed, the weevil is viewed as a helpful naturalized helper; in other states—like Colorado—it remains unapproved for intentional release due to a lack of formal ecological impact studies.

The larvae of the mullein seed-eating weevil. By researching the Great Mullein, I learned it was these grubs the Ladder-backed woodpeckers were picking from seed capsules.

Bumper-to-Bumper Weevil Interlude

It seems that using a non-native insect to control a non-native plant is effective in significantly reducing the number of Great Mullein’s viable seeds to limit the plant’s spread. It is also a risky strategy, as many biological slip-ups have occurred in the past when a population of an introduced insect, having depleted its targeted food supply, develops an appetite for other, desirable-to-native-species plants. So far in the U.S., the mullein seed-eating weevil has only feasted on seeds of two Verbascum species—the Great Mullein (its clear favorite) and the equally-alien Moth Mullein (V. blatteria). Because the population of egg-laying adult female weevils doesn’t have enough eggs to lay in all of the hundreds and hundreds of mullein flowers, it’s probably unlikely they will run short of food in the near or far future.

To Weed, or Not To Weed

And What to Do With Unruly Great Mullein

In all areas where Great Mullein has been introduced, it’s recognized as a weedy species. Considered Invasive³ across much of the U.S., Great Mullein is a state-listed Noxious⁴weed in Colorado and Hawaii, and in several counties in Wyoming, Nebraska and Montana. In these states it aggressively crowds out native plants in dry or open ecosystems.

In other areas of the U.S., opinions on the ecological impacts of Great Mullein vary. Some land managers primarily view it as a short-lived pioneer species on heavily disturbed ground that eventually fades as native vegetation recovers; others classify it as a persistent invasive weed based on its seed longevity. Where agricultural crops are grown, impacts are generally considered minor — the ability of Great Mullein to outcompete most crops is limited because it’s shade intolerant and doesn’t survive tilling. Where it may become invasive, individuals are easy to remove by hand, even though populations are difficult to eliminate permanently.

Control Measures that Work: Mechanical methods that control the growth and/or spread of Great Mullein are the most effective. The best means is by hand pulling and hoeing, preferably followed by sowing of native plants. Regular cultivation is known to be adequate for the control of mullein. Tractor-mounted mowers or scythes can be used to trim the plants when they begin to flower. Repeated mowing prevents the flower stalk from bolting, but if mowing is discontinued then the plant will bolt and produce flowers anyhow.

Luna standing next to the rescued fasciated flower stalk, keep watch for thieves!

Not Worth the Time or Effort: All parts of the plant are covered in dense, star-shaped hairs (trichomes). Cattle and sheep avoid grazing the plant because biting into these hairs is irritating. Goats may find the plant edible, but studies are inconclusive. Use of contact herbicides is impractical since the hairs cause the liquid to roll off. Ground herbicides when taken up by the roots will damage or kill the plant, won’t kill seeds stored in the soil from previous years, and also denude the ground creating ideal conditions for growing more mullein. It would take decades of annual applications to slow, let alone prevent, new plants from growing. The use of seed-eating chickens has been proposed for mullein control, but has not been studied.

Multi-Use Mullein

Although commonly used in traditional medicine, today there are no FDA-approved drugs made from Great Mullein. Non-medicinal uses, past and present, are curiously varied.

Traditional Medicine

Dioscorides, an Ancient Greek pharmacologist and botanist, first recommended Great Mullein 2000 years ago as a folk medicine for pulmonary diseases. Leaves were smoked to attempt to treat lung ailments, a condition that in America was rapidly transmitted to Native American peoples.
The Zuni used the plant in poultices of powdered root applied to sores, rashes and skin infections. An infusion of the root was also used to treat athlete’s foot. Any preparations meant to be drunk had to be finely filtered to eliminate the irritating hairs.
Oil from the flowers was used against catarrhs (inflamed mucous membrane(s) in an airway or body cavity) colics, earaches, frostbite, eczema, and other external conditions. Topical application of various V. thapsus-based preparations was recommended to treat warts, boils, carbuncles, hemorrhoids, and chilblains. The plant has been used in an attempt to treat colds, croup, sunburn, and other skin irritations.
Great Mullein (V. thapsus) was in the United States’ 4th edition of the National Formulary from 1916 – 1936, stipulating that fluid extracts of dried leaves and flowers of the plant was approved as a pharmaceutical drug.

Otherwise Practical and Curious Uses

Roman soldiers are said to have dipped the flower stalks in grease for use as torches.
Romans extracted a yellow dye from the flowers to color women’s hair.
In some cultures, leaves have been used as wicks.
Native Americans and colonists lined their shoes with the plant’s leaves to keep out the cold.
As with many plants, Great Mullein was linked to witches, although the relationship remained undefined. At the same time, the plant was also widely believed to ward off curses and evil spirits.
As mentioned earlier, the seeds, which contain saponins, glycosides, coumarin and rotenone, are toxic to fish and have been widely used as piscicide since the plant’s introduction to the U.S. in the 1700s. Settlers threw the seeds and even the leaves into slow-moving water, allowing the chemicals to spread and stun the fish, causing them to float to the top making them easy to catch.
In modern times, Great Mullein is treated as an ornamental plant.

A first-year rosette turning into a 2nd year flowering plant.

Etymology

From the Greek word etymon, meaning

“literal meaning of a word according to its origin”

Scientific Name: Verbascum thapsus

Genus Verbascum: Originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, Verbascum was derived from the classical Latin verbascum, used for the plant by Pliny the Elder (CE 23-79), Roman author, naturalist, scientist, etc. However, the word “verbascum” was widely believed to be and accepted as a corruption of “barbascum,” from “barba” meaning “beard.” The genus name Verbascum, back then (as it does today), refers to the dense, hairy coating on the leaves and the bearded appearance of the plant’s stamens.

Species (specific epithet) thapsus: First used by Theophrastus (BC 371-287), Ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist, for an unspecified herb from the Ancient Greek settlement of Thapsos, near modern city of Syracuse, Sicily ….. OR ….. it may have come from the ancient Tunisian city of Thapsus.

A first-year rosette turning into a 2nd year flowering plant. Would these huge leaves make excellent shoe liners!?

Common Name: Great Mullein

“Great” was used in the plant’s common name to distinguish it from other more diminutive plants of the same genus Verbascum. “Great” refers to the plant’s tall stature.

“Mullein” evolved from Middle English “moleyne,” by way of the Anglo-French word “moleine,” which came from the Latin root “mollis,” meaning “soft.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Wake up Now! Unless you’ve caught a case of Mullein Madness Fever!

Regardless, hope you found this interesting!

(I promise to write a shorter post next time)

As always, thanks for stopping by!

¹ Naturalized – a non-native plant species brought from other regions that now reproduces and spreads on its own without human help, but doesn’t aggressively overrun native habitats.

² Piscicide – a chemical substance that’s poisonous to fish. Piscicides are primarily used to eliminate a dominant species of fish in a body of water, done as the first step in attempting to populate the water body with a different fish species. They are also used to combat parasitic and invasive species of fish.

³ Invasive – a non-native species introduced to a new-to-it ecosystem where it spreads rapidly, outcompetes native species, and causes economic or environmental harm. Because it lacks natural predators or diseases in its new home, it easily takes over natural habitats, yards, farms, etc.

⁴ Noxious – any plant legally designated by a government agency as harmful to agriculture, public health, wildlife, or property. These plants grow aggressively, spread fast, and lack natural controls. While many are non-native invasive species, some native plants can also be classified as noxious if they cause severe damage.

References

cabidigitallibrary.org

discoveringfossils.co.uk

extension.oregonstate.edu

southwestdesertflora.com

starrenvironmental.com

uwm.edu

wikipedia.org

Ladder-backed Woodpecker – Page 15 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

August 10, 2026

Ladder-backed Woodpecker (Dryobates scalaris)

aka Cactus Woodpecker (Dryobates scalaris cactophilus)

Such dashing little birds, Ladder-backed Woodpeckers are fairly common along the trails of the Albuquerque foothills, easily spotted as they fly from one prickly cholla to another. They feed on insects living under the leather-like hide of the cactus’ trunks, somehow avoiding getting speared by thorns. Ladder-backed Woodpeckers are also at home among our neighborhood stands of pinyon pine and oak. For several years I’ve heard their high-pitched “Peek” call as they fly amongst the trees, but hadn’t caught a glimpse of one to confirm a sighting ….. until this summer!

While walking into the back yard one day I came to an abrupt stop at the gate. A mere 20 feet to my right came a “Peek” call —- and then another “Peek.” Turning only my head, ever so slowly, in the direction of that familiar call, I saw a male Ladder-backed Woodpecker creeping up and around the 5 foot tall vertical flower stalk of a mullein plant (Verbascum thapsus) growing along the fence line. And not 1 foot away from him was his partner busy working her way up another mullein flower stalk. They were both so intent on drilling into bug-filled seed pods, they seemed not to notice me! Here was my Ladder-backed Woodpecker confirmation!

After watching their activity for 10 minutes or so, I tip-toed away to fetch Roy and my camera, confident the birds had enough seed pods to keep them busy. Upon our return, they were still excitedly feasting and calling to each other, and I was able to capture a few dozen photos.

Like clockwork, the pair returned every day for a week! It was such a joy to watch them both ….. mostly they got along — like a newlywed couple. But there were times ….. like when one or the other of them dared to feed from the same mullein flower stalk, at the same time! Quite a squabble took place; both birds shouting rapid-fire “PEEK – PEEK” with wings wildly flapping all while they hitched themselves up and around the stalk to the very tip! Peace returned by default when the first bird reaching the top ran out of flower stalk, and surrendered to their mate by flying away to another mullein. Because there were only a few mullein plants with a supply of delicious bugs, competition and arguments between the two birds was frequent. But I never knew who the winner would be until each round was won.

A Bit About Looks

Ladder-backed Woodpeckers have a square head, a small but straight chisel-like bill, short neck, and stiff tail that they lean against for support. Both sexes are 6.3 – 7.1 inches long and have a 13 inch wingspan. Color-wise, they are black-and-white above arranged in neat stripes like ladder rungs on their backs, and a more checkered pattern on their wings. Underparts are buffy white or grayish, stippled with black. Their buffy white face is broken by black lines that extend from the bill and eye and join at the neck. Males have mostly red crowns from their eyes to back of the head; females have blackish crowns with a buffy patch in front of the eyes.

A female Ladder-backed probing a mullein flower bud for insects.

A Bit About Behaviors

Usually staying hidden by foliage, Ladder-backed Woodpeckers are readily detected by their “Peek” calls or rapid drumming on trees while searching for food. As they move about from tree-to-tree, you’ll notice their short duration flight pattern is rapid and undulating. Breeding pairs of this woodpecker form or re-form in winter or early spring.

A Bit About Foraging, Diet and Related Behaviors

Like most woodpecker species, the Ladder-backed male typically forages on tree branches and trunks; females forage on smaller plants and bushes. They find insects by pecking, picking, probing, prying, gleaning, flicking, or tapping their bill at bark or other spots that might be hiding insects. Ladder-backed Woodpeckers can be quite acrobatic, twisting and turning, balancing with the wings open, and hanging upside down in pursuit of food as they hitch and hop upwards on a tree or other plant. Their ability to prop themselves in any position on just about any plant to feed is due to their stiff tails and agile feet.

A male Ladder-backed drilling furiously into a mullein flower bud. The birds make lasting holes in the buds as they open the sepals in search of insects.

Although Ladder-backed Woodpeckers eat mostly insect larvae, they do eat some adult insects. Prey include wood-boring beetles, leaf worms, ants, caterpillars, and true bugs (hemipterans). Occasionally they will eat cactus fruit.

Unlike larger woodpecker species, the Ladder-backed rarely digs deep into the wood, they do not cache (store) food or capture flying insects in midair. They rarely feed on the ground.

A Bit About Range and Habitat

Ladder-backed Woodpeckers are permanent residents (not migratory) within their range which includes: central and eastern parts of NM through extreme southeast CO; southern, western and northwestern AZ; extreme eastern and northeastern tip of the TX panhandle; extreme southeast CA. Ladder-backed Woodpeckers are found throughout most of Mexico and in parts of Central America.

Typically, these woodpeckers live in very dry habitats such as deserts, desert scrub, thorn forest, and pinyon-juniper woodlands from the lowest elevations up to about 7,600 feet.

A Tiny Bit of Fun Facts

Like most woodpeckers, the Ladder-backed have their four toes arranged in an X-pattern, with two set forward and two backward (known as “zygodactyl”). This adaptation allows them to cling to vertical surfaces and even upside down on horizontal surfaces more easily and firmly than perching birds (which have three toes set forward and one backward).

A male Ladder-backed showing how his X-shaped or Zygodactyl toe arrangement and stiff tail allows him to cling and prop against this vertical mullein flower stalk.

The oldest known Ladder-backed Woodpecker was a male who was at least 4 years, 6 months old when caught and released in Texas.

A Bit About Common Names

The “Ladder-backed” name comes from the pattern of black-and-white markings climbing the bird’s back in neat stripes like ladder rungs, all the way up to the base of their heads.

The “Cactus Woodpecker” (D. s. cactophilus) is an old name for a subspecies of the Ladder-backed Woodpecker that inhabits the southwestern United States and adjacent Mexico. Calling them “Cactus Woodpecker” was fitting as they frequently forage on and nest in various species of cacti.

A Bit About Scientific Names – Etymology

Dryobates scalaris and Dryobates scalaris cactophilus

The genus Dryobates, named by the German naturalist Friedrich Boise in 1826, is from the Greek compound word δρυο-βάτης : ‘woodland walker’; from δρυο (-drus) meaning “woodland,” and βάτης (-bátēs) meaning “walker.”

The species scalaris comes from Latin, meaning “of or pertaining to a ladder” or “a flight of steps.”

The subspecies cactophilus was likely a slight misspelling of cactophily (or cactophile/cactophilic). Breaking down cactophily (cacto– and –phily), you have something with an affinity for or specialization in cacti. More precisely, cacto- is from the Neo-Latin noun for cactus, which derived originally from the Ancient Greek kaktos, a term used by Theophrastus to describe a kind of thorny thistle. And -phily is derived from the Ancient Greek suffix -philia meaning love, fondness, affinity, or a tendency toward something.

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Hope you found this interesting!

I’d love to know what woodpeckers visit your neighborhood.

As always, thanks for stopping by!

References

allaboutbirds.org

audubon.org

iNaturalist.org

White Milkwort – Page 11 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

June 1, 2026

White Milkwort (Senega alba (Nutt.) J.F.B. Pastore & J.R. Abbott)

(synonymous with Polygala alba Nutt.)

A Light Touch

It was a beautiful morning for a walk along one of the neighborhood’s 2-track dirt roads. I was searching for late blooming Spring wildflowers when something lightly brushed against my leg, bringing me to a full stop. There, at my feet, gently swaying in the quiet breeze were a dozen+ foot tall, nearly naked, skinny green stems topped with lavender and white cones. Not wishing to crush these delicate stalks, I noticed there were five other groupings nearby, all growing in the road’s old tire depressions. Upon closer inspection, I recalled having seen this plant before in the yard of our previous home, but they had fewer and shorter stems, and larger (?) flower cones. Still, this was the white milkwort species (back then known as Polygala alba; today called Senega alba) I identified four years ago. It was the larger size and delicate nature of these plants at my feet – that puzzled me.

Here’s what I learned:

The stems, which are ridged, can grow to 18” tall. They branch from a basal caudex (a root-like thickened stem, often found underground, from which branching/stems grow …… and the more extensive the caudex, the more above ground stems form.
You can roughly age this perennial milkwort by counting the number of vertical stems. Typically there’s one stem on seedlings and one-year old plants; as many as 30 stems have been counted on much older (many, many years old) plants.
Even though the official flowering period ends late summer, if mid-summer/early fall rains (our monsoon season) are plentiful, another bloom period peaks and can continue into November. It’s been reported that when old flowers are removed from these milkworts (deadheaded), the plants will bloom continuously for up to four years! Obviously, those plants are not impacted by winter frosts.
The 90% of the pollinators visiting white milkwort are small to medium solitary or semi-solitary bees. Where we live (desert southwest), many of these ground-nesting bees are floral specialists, and based on research dating back to the early 70s, green metallic bees highly favor this native plant’s flowers for nectar and pollen. And with extended bloom times prompted by monsoons, this helps benefit these and other bee species. Unfortunately, the timing and intensity of our monsoons is no longer predictable and is likely causing unfavorable conditions for extended flower bloom and the bees.
Always be prepared to encounter a plant that tickles!

Classification and an Etymological Quandary

To learn the story about the old and new scientific names for white milkwort, and why being a botanist way back when and today is so challenging, read the next section on Etymology. It really is quite fascinating!

Etymology

Way back in the day (say, the early 1800s), when Thomas Nuttall, a English botanist, ornithologist, geologist and explorer, needed an unforgettably descriptive binomial name for a new species he’d discovered, “Polygala alba Nutt.” was his choice. The genus “Polygala,” which was originally assigned by Linnaeus to a group of plants with similar-looking flowers, is Greek for milkwort — meaning “much milk; ” the species name “alba” is Latin for “white, bright or clear.”

Thomas, logically picked “alba” as the species name for his new discovery, because the plant had white flowers. However, he apparently chose the “Polygala” genus based on an ancient belief that nursing mothers (and cows) that ate the milkwort plant experienced increased lactation. However, Polygala alba doesn’t have either milky sap or any plant parts with milk! After diving deeper into the Polygala genus as a whole, I couldn’t find any that ooze a milky substance.

The changing nature of botanical classification: It wasn’t until recently (2023 to be exact) that the official report announcing the transfer of 18 Polygala species to Senega, including Polygala alba to Senega alba, was published by botanists J.F.B. Pastore & J.R. Abbott. This change was based on a number of scientifically-researched plant characteristics, which addressed deviations in seed, fruit, and floral anatomy between Senega and true Polygala species. Now I know I need a bigger microscope!

In case you’re curious (I certainly was) there are no Senega milkworts (today referred to as American milkworts, formerly classified under Polygala) with a milky sap. So, despite their family (Polygalaceae) and originally assigned genus name (Polygala), these plants exude a clear, watery sap when their stems are broken.

Why “Senega” was selected as the genus name for all American milkworts: The genus name “Senega” comes from the Seneca Native American tribe. The first use of the name in the English language was in the 1730s; the Seneca snakeroot plant was given the scientific name Polygala senega, to honor the tribe’s traditional use of the root as a remedy for snakebites and respiratory issues.

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Hope you found this interesting!

As always, thanks for stopping by!

References

swcoloradowildflowers.com

wildflower.org

Narrowleaf Puccoon – Page 10 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

May 25, 2026

Narrowleaf Puccoon (Lithospermum incisum)

Etymology

Lithospermum, the genus named by Linnaeus in 1753, is Greek for stone (“Lithos”) and seed (“sperma”), referring to the hard nutlets. And “incisum,” the Latin species name referring to the incised, fringed edges of the trumpet flowers, was named by Lehman (a German botanist) in 1818 from a specimen collected “near the rapids of the Ohio” by Andre Michaux (a French botanist and explorer) in 1802.

Puccoon evolved from “poughkone,” a word the Virginia Algonquian language used for plants whose roots yield a red or yellow pigment. The roots of Narrowleaf Puccoon were historically used as dyes ranging from purple to red to yellow.

A Two-Flower Strategy

Very showy and quite lovely, the sunshine yellow trumpet-shaped flowers of Narrowleaf Puccoon are hard to miss. They often cluster at the ends of 12-20” long stems where the floral tube is ringed by five frilly petal lobes. The flowers depend on pollinators like butterflies for cross-pollination which adds genetic diversity to the few seeds they produce. Botanically speaking, these traditional, open flowers with exposed reproductive parts are referred to as Chasmogamous.

Then later in the season, the Narrowleaf Puccoon produces small, petal-less flowers that remain tightly closed. These highly fertile, self-pollinating flowers account for almost all of the plant’s seed production. Botanists refer to this type of closed, often inconspicuous flower as Cleistogamous.

The“Stone Seed” Fruit

Because Narrowleaf Puccoon only produces the occasional fruit from its showy flowers, it takes a bit of searching around the plant’s lower leaf axils to locate a tiny group of up to four hard “stone seed” nutlets. Beginning growth inside the self-fertile, closed (Cleistogamous) flowers that are present late in the season, each egg-shaped nutlet, pitted across the surface, ripens to a shiny white.

Plant Propagation

Seed Germination – To grow Narrowleaf Puccoon from seed, nutlets should be collected in late summer. Soak them overnight in hot water then plant immediately. Because seed germination is sporadic and often disappointing, selecting a desirable location for planting is important. The plant grows best in very sandy, well drained soils found in the dry/open areas within our pinyon/juniper woodlands (though they do grow in soils with some loam or clay).

Shiny white nutlets with Penny for size
Photo edited from a post by
A Wandering Botanist

Root Cutting – A more successful method may be to take a 2-inch cutting of the taproot in the fall. Dip the cutting in a root stimulant and plant in a desirable location.

Suggestions for root stimulants

Powdered Hormones: Highly cost-effective, have a long shelf life and easy to use. After you moisten the root cutting, just dip it directly into the powder (e.g., Garden Safe TakeRoot) and plant.
Natural/DIY Options: Raw aloe vera gel and crushed, uncoated aspirin both contain natural growth-promoting enzymes. You can also use diluted willow bark extract, which is naturally rich in rooting hormones.

Plant Care – Narrowleaf Puccoon requires full sun and very little water, making it a good plant for xeric gardens or included with other native plants to establish a wildflower meadow.

Photo taken early May 2026 along the Entranosa access road

Medicinal Properties and a Cautionary Note

The Navajo chewed the root of Narrowleaf Puccoon for coughs and colds. They, and the Zuni rubbed the plant’s finely powdered leaves, root and stem on the body to treat paralyzed limbs. An infusion of the root was used for stomach aches and kidney problems. The plant was eaten as an oral contraceptive, and a cold infusion of the pulverized root and seed was used as an eyewash.

Although Narrowleaf Puccoon does have medicinal properties, it contains potentially toxic alkaloids. Self-treatment involving this plant is strongly discouraged.

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If you’ve seen Narrowleaf Puccoon, did you find their highly fertile, tightly closed flowers and/or the shiny white nutlets? Have you tried growing the plant from seed or root cuttings, and were you successful?

As always, thanks for stopping by!

Happy Memorial Day!

References

backyardnature.net

iNaturalist.org

minnesotawildflowers.info

openprairie.sdstate.edu

swcoloradowildflowers.com

visitsfbg.org

wildflower.org

Tulips: A Matter of Mold

Lessons in Experimenting

May 17, 2026

“I have been careless, and so have been thwarted by luck and chance, those wreckers of all but the best laid plans.” ~ J. K. Rowling

Have you ever set foot in a place of business and the first thing you laid eyes on became yours?

That’s exactly what happened to me on April 13th ….

Adoption

Upon entering a local grocery store, I immediately fell in love with a beautiful display of tulips growing in glass vases, their rooted bulbs producing bright spring green leaves surrounding fledgling flower buds and blossoms! Without hesitation (or consulting my shopping list), two healthy looking plants landed in my buggy! Like a proud parent, I proudly carted these treasures about while finding the actual items on my list, all the while justifying such a frivolous selection (the lovely tulip nearly in full bloom would be a gift for a dear friend; the other with a wee whisper of a bud would be mine to ‘nature journal’).

Nature Journaling

In a few days, my friend was enjoying her new tulip, and I was busy charting the growth of mine in my nature journal. It was amazing how quickly that little bud grew. When it broke free of the vase’s rim the petals and sepals (tepals) began to open, and the yellow became more intense while their centers grew more orange. It was very exciting to see these changes.

Disaster

Then on April 24th, something changed. Tiny white dots appeared on the bulb’s papery cover (the tunic) and the tepals drooped. Over the next few days, the white dot population steadily expanded over the bottom of the bulb, along with soft white threads that seemed to reach out from the dots. Mold! A fungus was aggressively devouring the poor defenseless tulip bulb! Why and could it be saved?

Although I’d been careful not to submerge the bottom of the bulb in water, the occasional slip-up had occurred. That, combined with the poor ventilation in the vase and the presence of fungal spores that float naturally in the air made for the perfect mold-loving environment. Even the use of filtered water wasn’t precaution enough to prevent this disaster. Even after gently rinsing the bulb, cleaning the vase and replacing the water with fresh, wasn’t remedy soon enough to save the bulb. The brief life of my adopted tulip had come to an end.

Lessons Learned

Following the demise of my tulip, I scoured the internet for diagnostic clues of a fungal attack and effective first aid. Apparently moldy fungus growth on tulip bulbs is very common, and I learned quite a bit about identifying and treating it in my post-bulb moments. Most importantly, never having grown a bulb of any kind in water (hydroponically), had I begun my aquaculture experiment by searching for helpful tips, my tulip bulb may still be alive. That’s my hindsight lesson.

However, knowing full well my passion for research into any and all things, had I 1) paused just a ‘sec’ and admitted to my lack of knowledge and experience in hydroponic tulip rearing, and 2) gone home to conducti my research in a careful and thorough manner, and 3) returned the next day to buy the two tulips, well ….. they might’ve been sold! (In fact I did return the following day and noticed the tulip display was gone.)

There’s something to be said for spontaneity!

“It’s good to be prepared, but spontaneity is very important — just to let yourself go and let it be whatever it is.” ~ Aron Eisenberg

If you’ve successfully raised a bulbed plant in water, what precautions did you take? If you’ve had an encounter with bulb mold, if you were able to stop it’s rapid spread, what measures did you take to save the bulb?

Hope you enjoyed journal pages I created to chart the life and death of my tulip bulb. Because I was conducting an experiment in hydroponics, I decided to experiment with various watercolor techniques, including trying out something new in adding backgrounds. Please let me know if and which compositions and/or colors you liked. I found experimenting with different watercolor materials and color mixing added valuable lessons for future journal pages. (On my pages I provided a brief description of what was used to color each stage of growth.)

As always, thanks for coming along on my nature journaling journey!

Rose Heath – Page 9 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

May 9, 2026

Rose Heath (Chaetopappa ericoides)

When the last Spring snow melts and the runoff soaks into the nooks and crannies of dehydrated soils, there’s a thirsty little shrub that eagerly drinks its fill. The leafy stems of this tiny shrub, so easily overlooked in the winter, rapidly grows on bare ground, around the drip line of pinyon and juniper trees, in the negative spaces between rocks and broken branches, and through beds of dried grasses. Then in a day or two a very small flower bud forms on the top of each stem, and in half a week the buds open simultaneously. What a spectacular display of brilliant white daisies ….. bouquets of light!

Barely ankle high, each flowerhead can have up to 24 white ray florets surrounding a rich buttery yellow center of 12-25 disc florets. And don’t fret if you notice the ray florets have curled downward in the evening. They magically unfurl to their full length by mid-morning the following day.

This annual Spring show, which takes place all across the U.S. west and western Great Plains, is brought to you by the “petite” perennial called Rose Heath (Chaetopappa eriocoides). (Widespread and common in New Mexico, Rose Heath is adaptable to a variety of soils, elevation, and drought.)

The show typically begins in late March and continues into early May. And for those craving more, flowering resumes in August and can run until November; no charge. You just have to get out there and see for yourself!

Origin and Etymology – What’s in a Name?

Origin of the Scientific Name, Chaetopappa ericoides

Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, a Swiss botanist, named this genus Inula in the early 1800s. But in 1827, it was the American botanist John Torrey, who named the species Inula ericoides, from a specimen collected by botanist Edwin James along the Canadian River during Major Stephen Long’s Expedition of 1819-1820. Since that time, the species has undergone more than a dozen name changes including Leucelene ericoides (Edward Greene in 1896) and finally Chaetopappa ericoides (Guy Nesom in 1988).

Etymology of the Scientific Name, Chaetopappa ericoides

The genus “Chaetopappa” is Greek for ‘bristly pappus’ (pappus refers to the score of tiny white bristles surrounding the disc florets; the same bristles, one per seed, that helps carry Rose Heath’s mature seeds up, up and away. The species “Ericoides,” also Greek, means ‘similar (“oides“) to Heath’ (“eric”); i.e., the plant’s tiny, overlapping leaves are similar to those of some Heaths (Ericaceae is the scientific name of the Heath Family.)

Common Name, Rose Heath

From the previous paragraph, it’s obvious where the name ‘Heath’ comes from, as Rose Heath does have stems and leaves very similar to a heath plant. But why ‘Rose?’ What I found is ‘Rose’ is Latin in origin, derived from “rosa,” referring to the flower. Because the daisy-like flowers of Rose Heath don’t resemble a rose flower, deeper diving was needed. I discovered that throughout history ‘Rosa’ and ‘Rose’ have represented love, passion, innocence, and beauty. So perhaps ……. ? If you’re familiar with Rose Heath or have seen photos of the plant in bloom, do you love or could you love its beautiful floral bouquets? I think whoever thought to call this plant by the common name ‘Rose Heath,’ must’ve loved its stunning display!

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Have you seen this beautiful plant, Rose Heath?

As always, thanks for stopping by!

References

inaturalist.org

npsnm.org/wildflowersnm

Stevenson, M., 1915 Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians. SI-BAE Annual Report #30, p.55 (as referenced by iNaturalist)

swbiodiversity.org

swcoloradowildflowers.com

Perky Sue – Page 7 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

April 29, 2026

Perky Sue (Tetraneuris argentea)

Perky Sue has to be the happiest little sunflower on planet Earth!

“Is it because Perky Sue is an early spring bloomer, it’s smiling face opening in mid- to late March? Maybe it’s how those brilliant yellow flowers climb above fields of drab, dry grasses to brighten the landscape? Perhaps it’s those tall, soft and silky flower stems that dance with wild abandon to the music of our spring breezes?”

No matter why Perky Sue always brings smiles, you can’t deny that encountering a blooming bunch makes you instantly happy!

Look for these stunning sunflowers in the open areas scattered throughout and adjacent to the subdivision. Separate the dried grass and discover the soft sage-colored, spatula-shaped leaves densely clustered at ground level. Remember this spot and return every Spring to watch our grassy meadows awaken with dazzling yellow sunshine.

Did You Know ………………. ?

When you encounter Perky Sue (or most any other sunflower) take a close-up look at one of it’s flowers. What you’re actually seeing is a collection of tiny flowers (florets). The most numerous type of floret lies within the face or center of the flower head (these are the disc florets). But you may be surprised to learn there’s a second type of floret often thought of as the sunflower’s petals (called the ray florets).

The Sunflower Face

The face or central part of the flower head is called a disc; the individual flowers, the disc florets, are arranged in clockwise and counterclockwise spirals. Look close and notice each floret has five distinctly flared petal lobes attached to a fused floral tube (which together form the corolla). Each floret is fertile, having both male (staminate) and female (pistillate) organs, able to produce pollen and seeds.

The Sunflower “Petals”

Radiating out from the disc like the rays of the Sun is a showy ring (or multiple rings) of what looks like flower “petals.” However, each “petal” is a single ray floret ‎consisting of a single strap-shaped flower (ligule) of five fused petals (corolla) that form a tube at the base. In Perky Sue and some other sunflowers, the ray florets are pistillate. But in the majority of species the ray florets are sterile.

The Sunflower “Landing Pad”

Sunflowers have one of the most highly evolved “flowers” in the plant kingdom. To maximize their visual attraction to pollinators, the ray florets became large showy structures that act as a “landing pad” for bees and other pollinators. When they “touch down” they are immediately drawn along the ligule to the bountiful pollen supply of the disc florets. Large pollinators also use the ligules of ray florets as a supporting platform to balance and feed from the disc florets’ floral tubes. So, ray florets evolved to increase the pollination success of the fertile disc florets at the center of the sunflower. And in the case of Perky Sue, insects carrying pollen as they fl to other “landing pads” increase the pollination of the pistillate ray florets.

Want to Learn More?

The biology of sunflowers is a fascinating subject, and I’ve spent many hours researching and illustrating their intricate parts and pieces, and how they work. If you’d like to learn more, check out these detailed posts I put together in the summer of 2023:

Geeking Out …… Total Bliss ….. Sunflowers!

Cypsela! The Sunflower Seed

…. and for a bit more about Perky Sue, get more here from my summer 2024 post

Perky Sue!

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Does Perky Sue bloom in your neighborhood?

Have you ever taken a close look at its flower head or inspected the florets of another sunflower species?

What did you see?

Hope you enjoyed this page of my field guide. I’d love to know if you found the information new and/or inspired you to check out the details of your local sunflowers.

As always, thanks for stopping by!

References

inaturalist.org

swbiodiversity.org

deercanyonfolks.org

White-point Vetch – Page 6 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

April 27, 2026

White-point Vetch (Oxytropis sericea var. sericea)

One of the first flowers to bloom in the spring, white-point vetch forms a dense bouquet of brilliant white, pea-shaped flowers that grow on 12 inch tall stalks arising from many basal, soft-hairy compound leaves.

Beautiful to look at ….. POISONOUS if ingested …

….… especially if you’re a cow, horse, sheep, goat, elk or mule deer

All parts of white-point vetch (aka white locoweed) are poisonous at all times, even when dried. The culprit is an alkaloid toxin called Swainsonine, which inhibits enzymes essential for normal carbohydrate and glycoprotein metabolism in cells. This causes carbohydrates to accumulate in the brain and most other organs preventing normal cell function. Depending on how long the locoweed is eaten, the affected cells can be permanently damaged; one to three months of heavy consumption can cause death. Also, Swainsonine is present in the milk of lactating animals affecting their nursing youngsters.

Are locoweeds naturally poisonous? Well, yes, in a way. But the poison isn’t made by the plant itself. Swainsonine is produced by a fungus (Undifilium oxytropis) that acts as an “endophyte,” happily living between the plant’s cells of certain locoweeds in the genus’ Astragalus and Oxytropis. This fungus, thriving at high elevations on Western US rangelands, coexists symbiotically with the host plant, causing little to no harm to the host locoweed. In fact the host may even benefit from the fungus by receiving enhanced drought tolerance, as well as a “don’t eat me” sign to all hungry ungulates. Meanwhile, the fungus goes about its business of keeping the plant well stocked with Swainsonine. Only the species of locoweed without the endophytic fungus are not poisonous. Review the list at the end of my post to learn which Astragalus and Oxytropis species are known to cause “locoism.” (But the real lesson is to be wary of all species in these two genus’ until you seek expert identification.)

Symptoms of locoism in ungulates: Malabsorption of essential minerals and vitamins in the intestinal tract. Decreased appetite and weight loss. Decreased liver function and damage due to elevated liver serum enzymes. Calves, lambs, and foals may be born with deformed legs. Abortions and fetal death are common. Other general symptoms include depression, blindness, loss of coordination, emancipation, tremors, paralysis, constipation and deterioration of the coat.

We have 5 of these plants scattered around our property., and this is one of them. We also have a group of mule deer that walk by this plant almost daily. They must know not to eat the leaves and flowers, moving quickly by in search of something safe to eat.

Abnormal behaviors emerge, such as sudden changes in temperament, aggressiveness, ataxia, falling over unexpectedly, violent reaction to routine management practices such as putting on a halter or refusing to go through a chute. Horses become very depressed and sleepy, and often show more severe neurological effects of locoweed poisoning than cattle and sheep.

Specific to cattle, the major problem encountered with locoweed poisoning is decreased fertility characterized by lower conception and calving rates; semen fertility of affected bulls is also decreased. In addition, cows and bulls consuming locoweed experience reduced libido, behavioral changes, weight loss, and heart failure. Typical findings in calves are decreased growth rates resulting in lower weaning weights. Some calves may be born weak and die shortly after birth.

The flowers of White-point Vetch are bright white and quite lovely. This close-up shows how their form resembles a garden pea flower.

There is no effective treatment for locoweed poisoning! Recovery depends on the duration of ingestion and severity of the lesions. Locoed horses are considered permanently affected.

So why do animals eat poisonous locoweeds when other non-poisonous forage is available? One reason is locoweeds are palatable and have a similar nutrient value to alfalfa. Also, they become habituated to eating them from each other. Once one animal starts to eat locoweed others follow. Removing animals that are locoweed eaters from the herd can reduce the chances of other animals ‘learning’ to eat the plant through social observation.

Is the toxin Swainsonine poisonous to humans? While primarily a risk to livestock, unintentional human exposure, usually through ingestion or smoking, can cause hallucinations, severe liver damage, or even fatal poisoning.

From what I’ve read, people seeking to get “high” from Jimson weed (a Datura species), aka “loco weed,” often mistake a true “locoweed,” (like Oxytropis sericea) for the Datura, even though they look nothing alike. As they begin smoking the leaves or any other part of O. sericea, they can experience severe and rapid hallucinations, delirium, intense paranoia, psychosis, anxiety, agitation and disorientation as their heart races, pupils dilate, vision blurs, and a high fever sets in. Chronic ingestion inhibits cellular enzymes, potentially leading to long-term neurological impairment, reproductive dysfunction, and severe organ damage.

My hand carefully holding a flower stalk. This shows just how large the flowers are. Notice there are quite a lot of buds present at the flower stalk tip. (I did wash my hands after handling the plant)

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Well, that’s a lot of scary stuff! Let me end my post with something light-hearted and laughable from the Wild Wild West — something unbelievably crazy involving the extreme measures that were taken by Colorado ranchers during 1881 to 1885, to prevent their livestock from dining on poisonous locoweed.

Locoweed—The Most Infamous Plant of the Southwest!

As early as the 1800s, livestock growers in the west considered the presence of “weeds” (whether native or non-native) on rangelands an unwelcome nuisance, especially if they outcompeted the growth and availability of “desirable” plants (forage) needed to feed their herds. And if a tasty “weed” or two turned out to be poisonous to their livestock, then its elimination was critical. This was the case with white-point vetch, aka white locoweed (Oxytropis sericea), and its close relative, purple locoweed (O. lambertii), both native perennial species found throughout the intermountain west. Ranchers in the late 1870s were shocked by the skyrocketing deaths of their livestock that were eating locoweed. And in Colorado, ranchers demanded action.

This is a true story of locoweed, the first “weed” for which the 1880s Colorado legislature enacted radical management regulations; the first “weed” where detailed steps were laid out to not only control locoweed, but eliminate all signs of this poisonous plant from Colorado rangelands.

The following is an excerpt from an article written by Charles Bryant, Huerfano County’s (Colorado) Noxious Weed Manager, and printed in “The Learning Ledger” on June 2, 2025.

A young bouquet of White-point vetch was nearly 10” tall, with more growth expected.

One of Colorado’s Most Loco Laws ………

….. the ‘Loco’ or Poison Weed Act of 1881

“At the time of enactment, Colorado had been a state for less than five years and was the epitome of the “Old West,” with the livestock industry being one of the primary drivers of the newly-formed state’s economy. Because of the impact locoweed was having on the health of livestock by 1881, Colorado legislators became preoccupied with the native Oxytropis species.

“The 1881 “Loco or Poison Weed Act” (Act) allowed citizens to “dig up not less than three inches below the surface of the ground any ‘loco’ or poison weed during the months of May, June or July and shall receive a premium of one-half cents per pound for each pound of such weed dug up, to be paid out of the state treasury as hereinafter provided; provided, that such weed shall not be weighed in a green state, but shall be thoroughly dry when weighed.”

“The Act went on further to describe how locoweed bounty hunters of the state were to deliver their dried loads of locoweed to their county clerk within two months of their digging. Upon delivery to the clerk of the county where the weeds were gathered, the clerk was to weigh the load and require those seeking reimbursement to sign an oath stating: “I do solemnly swear that the weed here produced by me this day is ‘loco’ or poisonous weed of X amount of pounds, dug up by me within two months last past.” Upon the recitation of this somber oath the county clerk was to “forthwith destroy such weed by burning” and issue a certificate for payment that was to be paid by the county, with the county later being reimbursed from the state treasury after their submission of an annual report that detailed the amount of locoweed gathered and to whom bounties were paid.

“By 1885 it became glaringly apparent that the locoweed bounty program was unsustainable, to say the least, and rife with fraud. The February 12, 1885, edition of the Rocky Mountain News lambasted the “loco industry” and pointed to the handsome sum of $8,727.27 that had been paid out in one month alone to El Paso County, equivalent to over $283,333 in today’s dollars. The coverage went on to question how over half a million pounds could be collected in El Paso County in a month, and stated that the monthly locoweed bounty expenditures for El Paso County matched the total monthly operating cost of the Colorado State Penitentiary. Only six days after this scathing review, Colorado legislator Rep. Abraham Bergh of Park County led the repeal effort of the Act, and the state finally did away with perhaps one of the most “loco” laws to ever be enacted in Colorado.”

Are you familiar with your local locoweeds? If so, I’d love to know which species you’ve encountered and if they’re on the list (below) of those known to cause locoism?

After learning more about the poisonous nature of locoweeds, next time you discover one, will you think twice before handling the plant? (And please, if you do, be sure to wash your hands!)

Hope you enjoyed this post! Thanks for stopping by!

Astragalus and Oxytropis species known to cause locoism: Astragalus lentiginosis (spotted loco), A. mollissimus (woolly, purple loco), A. wootonii (Wooton loco), A. thurberi (Thurber’s loco), A. nothoxys (sheep loco), A. dyphysus (blue loco, rattlewood), A. earlei (Earle’s loco), A. argillophilus (half moon loco), Oxytropis sericea (white-point vetch, white loco), O. lambertii (purple point loco), O. bessyi (Bessy point vetch), and O. campestris (field loco).

(I’m thinking that just because these species are known to have the poisonous toxin Swainsonine, it might be best to err on the side of caution and treat Astragalus and Oxytropis species as suspect? Do you think so too?)

References

en.wikipedia.org

wildflower.org

poisonousplants.cvmbs.coloradostate.edu

inaturalist.org

oregonflora.org

coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=RMD18850212-01.2.24

Davis Mountain Mock Vervain – Page 3 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

March 23, 2026

Davis Mountain Mock Vervain (Glandularia wrightii)

This page shows samples from my specimen.. Although the flowers of my specimens are a purple-blue color, I chose to create the flower petals as reddish-pink; this color is also common.

This is a photo of the two flowers I sketched for my final painting.
The specimen on the left shows the upper part of the flower, the “limb” where 5 petals flair out from the throat ringed by fine hairs. The throat leads to the lower part of the flower – the floral tube (5 fused pale green petals). . Both upper and lower petals make up the flower’s corolla. Below the floral tube are 5 red tipped green sepals (collectively called a calyx) all fused into a cup shape. The specimen on the right is a dissected flower; 2 upper petals are removed, and the floral tube has been opened to reveal the reproductive parts. On the left side are 2 of the female parts of the pistil (pale green style supporting the 2-lobed stigma of the pistil; the ovary was not exposed). Two of the four stamens (male) lie in the mid- to upper right side of the opened floral tube; look for the bright yellow anthers, each sitting atop their own filament

Here’s Another Curiosity to Ponder: I wondered why this plant has 5 petals and 5 sepals but doesn’t also have 5 stamens, which is usually the norm in so many other 5-merous plant species??? Here’s what I learned:

Davis Mountain Mock Vervain (Glandularia wrightii) exhibits a common evolutionary trait in the Vervain (Verbenaceae) family where the flower displays a 5-lobed calyx of fused sepals, and 5 5-lobed petals which fuse into a tube (the corolla). This trait, commonly described as 5-merous, curiously has a reduced the number of functional stamens to four.

This reduction is due to an evolutionary transition from a 5-stamen ancestor. According to literature, the four fertile stamens I observed in my specimens are properly arranged in two pairs (didynamous), both neatly hidden in the floral tube beneath a ring of fine hairs. Also properly so, the filaments (the stalks that support the anthers) of the stamens are fused to the inside of the tube, and not easily teased free.

So apparently, many, many, many, many, Many hundreds of years ago, plants in the Vervain family “decided” having a 5th stamen was unnecessary. “We can do just fine without it, thank you.” Thru the process of evolution, that expendable #5 was ever so slowly reduced to a tiny non-functional structure (referred to as a staminode in modern botanical lingo), or was completely and totally lost, becoming only a memory.

Believe me, this species is an energetic producer of leaves, flowers and seeds. In my experience, Davis Mountain Mock Vervain seems to explode in masses of pink and purple flowers throughout spring, summer and fall, and can last thru winters that don’t freeze. It’s easy to understand why the species has no need of a 5th fertile stamen. Once the plant becomes established, it keeps growing and flowering and spreading, often to the detriment of other desirable plants. If it wasn’t so gorgeous at the height of bloom, it might be considered a weed!

But I’m reminded of the definition of a “Weed ….. a plant out of place.” So yes, you’ll find me actively weeding actively growing Davis Mountain Mock Vervain so my other native plants have a chance at life too!!

Thanks for stopping by!

Redstem Stork’s-Bill – Page 2 .. The 100 Day Project (2026)

March 20, 2o26

Redstem Stork’s-Bill (Erodium cicutarium)